Table 2 Characteristics of the included studies

Arkkukangas 2019 (1) [31]

Sweden

61

Otago exercise program (OEP)—MCPA

12

3

30

28

⑧

Arkkukangas 2019 (2) [31]

Sweden

58

OEP combined with Motivational Interviewing (OEP + MI)—MCPA

12

3

30

28

⑧

Arrieta 2018 [32]

Spain

57

Warm-up (5 min); Strength training (40%−60%1RM/65–70% 1RM, 25 min); Balance training (10 min); Walking retraining (5 min)—MCPA

12

2

45

55

⑤, ⑦, ⑧

Benavent 2015 [33]

Spain

28

Warm up; Strengthening exercises (ankle cuff weights, starting at 0.5 kg); Balance exercises; Walk (usual pace, 10 min); Cool down (10 min)—MCPA

16

3

45

23

①, ④, ⑤, ⑧

Brüll 2023 (1) [28]

Germany

23

Warm-up (5 min); Perturbation blocks (4 min*four perturbation); Cool down (3 min)—MBE

6

3

25

10

④, ⑦

Brüll 2023 (2) [28]

Germany

27

Warm-up (5 min); Circuit training (unstable devices: standing, lunges, jumping, five stations devices * 3 min); Cool down (3 min)—MBE

6

3

25

11

④, ⑦

Chang 2011 [34]

Korea

10

Warm-up (5-10 min); Main exercises (upper extremity, lower extremity muscular strength exercises, balancing exercises, 20–30 min); Cool down (5-10 min)—MBE

4

 > 3

35

8

⑤

Chewning 2019 [35]

United States

94

Opening (5–10 min); Tai Chi; Warm-ups and basic moves instruction (20–30 min); Informal teatime (10 min); Group home practice enhancement activities (20–30 min); TCF short form instruction (10–25 min); Closing (5 min)—MBE

6

2

90

103

④, ⑦

Donatoni 2022 [36]

Ireland

17

Pilates intervention overview (warm-up, mat pilates with accessories, cool down, 10repetitions * 2-3 sets)—MCPA

12

2

60

31

③, ④, ⑨

Fakhro 2019 [37]

Lebanon

30

Warm-up (5 min); Balance training using the Wii Fit games (soccer heading + table tilt, 30 min); Cool down (5 min)—MBE

8

3

40

30

④

Ferraro 2019 [38]

United Kingdom

23

IMT (equivalent to ~ 50% of baseline MIP, 30 breaths); Sham-IMT (corresponding to ~ 15% baseline MIP, 60 slow breaths)—MSA

8

7

30

23

④, ⑥

Franco 2020 [39]

Brazil

35

Senior dance classes (moderate-level intensity)—MBE

12

2

60

36

②, ⑥

Gabizon 2016 [40]

Israel

34

Lying exercises (thera-band); Sitting exercises; Sitting exercises; Thera-band exercises—MCPA

12

3

60

44

⑤

Granacher 2021 [41]

Germany

27

A lifestyle exercise program that included balance exercises conducted during the daily tooth brushing routine (3 min * twice)—MBE

8

7

6

24

④, ⑤, ⑥

Hartmann 2009 (1) [42]

Switzerland

28

Warm-up (10 min); Aerobic exercise (15 min); Progressive resistance strength training (12 repetitions, 2–3 sets); Foot gymnastics (5 min); Stretching; Relaxation exercises (10 min); Home-program (2-min Warm up, 4-min foot gymnastics, 4-min stretching)—MCPA

12

2

50

7

⑨

Hartmann 2009 (2) [42]

Switzerland

28

Warm-up (10 min); Aerobic exercise (15 min); Progressive resistance strength training (12 repetitions, 2–3 sets); Stretching; Relaxation exercises (10 min)—MSA

12

2

40

7

⑨

Hewitt 2018 [43]

Australia

113

Resistance; Weight-bearing balance; Functional group exercise sessions (10–15 repetitions, 2–3 sets, 30 min)—MCPA

25

2

60

108

⑧, ⑨

Hirase 2015 (1) [44]

Japan

32

Warm-up (10 min); Balance training (double-stance standing, one-leg standing, neck hyperextension, free-leg swinging, heel and toe raises, neck and trunk rotation, touching the floor, walking in place, sideways walking, and forward walking,40 min); Cool down (10 min)—MBE

16

1

60

15

④, ⑥

Hirase 2015 (2) [44]

Japan

31

Warm-up(10 min);Balance training(double-stance standing, one-leg standing, neck hyperextension, free-leg swinging, heel and toe raises, neck and trunk rotation, touching the floor, walking in place, sideways walking, and forward walking,40 min);Cool down(10 min)—MBE

16

1

60

15

④, ⑥

Hosseini 2018 [45]

Iran

30

Warm up (5 min); Tai Chi (35 min); Cool down (5 min)—MBE

8

2

55

30

④, ⑨

Ing 2024 [46]

Malaysia

26

Warm up; Resistance exercise using strap-on weights; Balance training; Square-stepping; Cool down and backward chaining to train for getting up from the floor—MCPA

24

2

75

26

①, ④, ⑥, ⑦

Jin 2012 [47]

Korea

17

Warm up;Static exercise (7 min * twice); Dynamic exercise (10 min); Progressive balance exercise (10 min); Cool down—MBE

4

2

60

18

①, ④, ③

Jung 2020 [48]

Japan

18

Movement of the lower extremity and spine to a greater extent; Put additional weight—MCPA

24

1

60

15

③, ④, ⑥

Kwon 2011 [49]

Korea

32

Warm-up (10 min); Walking exercise (20 min); Resistance training with elastic band (8–10/10–15 repetitions, 20 min); Education sessions (30-60 min); Cool-down (10 min)—MSA

12

1

60

21

④, ⑧

Lai 2013 [50]

China

15

Xavix Measured Step System (XMSS)—MBE

6

3

30

15

④, ⑤

Lee 2017 [51]

Korea

27

Stretching (3 min); Warm-up (5 min); Main exercise (static exercise, dynamic exercise, progressive balance exercises, 40 min); Cool down (10 min)—MBE

4

2

60

27

①, ③, ④, ⑤

Lee 2023 [52]

Korea

28

Warm-up (warm-up exercise consisted of stretching using the Ring Fit program and a leg massage using a massage ball, 10 min); Exercise (the participants performed yoga to increase balance, and leg and abdominal exercises to strengthen the lower-extremity muscles, 30 min); Cool down (stretching and breathing exercises, 10 min)—MBE

8

3

50

29

①, ③, ④, ⑤, ⑥

Machacova 2015 [53]

Czech

27

Warm-up (10 min); Main dance-based exercises (foxtrot, waltz, cha-cha-cha, cancan, and so on,40 min); Cool down (10 min)—MBE

12

1

60

25

⑦

Manor 2014 [54]

United States

26

Raising the power; Withdraw and push; Grasp the sparrow's tail; Brush knee twist step; Wave hand like clouds(20 min * three times weekly)—MBE

12

2

60

28

④, ⑤, ⑧

Naczk 2020 [55]

Poland

10

12 sets of exercises (upper and lower extremities, 10 kg/20 kg, 3 sets per muscle group)—MSA

6

2

30

10

⑦

Oh 2020 [56]

Korea

11

Relax their bodies and meditate (10 min); Motor imagery training (20 min); Task-Oriented training (20 min)—MBE

6

3

40

12

④, ⑤

Ohtake 2013 [57]

Japan

92

Six types of stretching exercises (15 s * 5 sets); Six types of muscle strength training (3 s * 5 sets); Two types of balance training (3 s * 5 sets); Toe stretching; A resistance band was used for muscle strength training—MCPA

8

2

25

74

③, ④

Pepera 2022 [58]

Greece

20

Warm-up (10 min); Main component (30 min); Cool down (10 min)—MCPA

8

2

45

20

⑥

Pirouzi 2014 [29]

Iran

14

Warm-up (5 min); Forward treadmill training (10 min); Backward treadmill training (10 min); Cool down exercises (5 min)—MBE

4

3

30

15

⑤

Roller 2017 [59]

United States

27

The older adults walked in pairs or trios/an aerobic activity in an indoor space—MBE

10

1

45

28

④, ⑤

Sadaqa 2024 [60]

Hungary

12

Walking + map reading—MBE

12

2

50

12

③, ④, ⑧

Sales 2016 [61]

Finland

27

Pilates (progressive resistance of 2–4 springs, 8–10 repetitions)—MCPA

18

2

60

21

①, ④, ⑦

Schilling 2009 [62]

-

10

Warm-up (range of motion exercises + light walking, 5 min); Progressive static and dynamic balance exercises (13–15 repetitions maximum, one or two sets,10 min); Strength exercises (15-20 min); Aerobic exercises (15-20 min); Cool down exercises (5 min).—MCPA

5

3

30

9

④

Schlicht 2001 [63]

United States

11

Warm-up (5-10 min); Core training (push-ups and taps on the platform, modified pull-ups and gangway, balance stool, calf raises + finger steps, sit to stand and round snake pipe, ramp + net + climb through and sharp snake pipe, balance beam and hip extension, steps and screws/turners,step-ups and hip abduction, 45-75 min); Cool down (5-10 min)—MBE

8

3

45

11

②, ⑥

Sedaghati 2022 [64]

Iran

14

Body squat; Leg circles; Extended reach; Standing balance; Sit-to-stand; Split squats; Forward trunk lean; Standing balance; Body squat; Trunk rotation; Diagonal trunk lean; Extended reach (3repetitions, 2–3 sets)—MBE

8

3

60

14

④, ⑤, ⑧

Sitthiracha 2021 [65]

Thailand

30

Leg extension; Hip adduction; Hip abduction; Gluteal press; Leg press and ankle extension (75% 1RM, 10 repetitions, 2 sets)—MSA

8

5

40

30

①, ②, ④, ⑥, ⑨

Timon 2021 (1) [66]

Spain

18

Strength static balance; Dual-task; Corrective posture (first month); Strength; Dynamic balance; Dual-task;Corrective posture (second month)—MCPA

24

3

45

9

①, ⑦, ⑨

Timon 2021 (2) [66]

Spain

17

Warm up; Main part (PSME); Cool down—MBE

24

3

45

10

①, ⑦, ⑨

Printes 2024 (1) [30]

Brazil

24

Warm-up (10 min); Main part (strength training, 12-15repetitions * three sets, 6-8RPE, 4 kg-6 kg, 30 min); Cool down (5 min); 459 m—MSA

24

2

60

13

④

Printes 2024 (2) [30]

Brazil

23

Warm-up (10 min); Main part (strength training, 12-15repetitions * three sets, 6-8RPE, 4 kg-6 kg, 30 min); Cool down (5 min); 2000 m, FIO2 = 16.1%—MSA

24

2

60

12

④

Ullmann 2010 [67]

United States

25

Sitting; Reaching; Walking; Turning; Transfers (lying to sitting, sitting to standing, and vice versa); Relaxation—MBE

5

3

60

22

④

Whyatt 2015 [68]

United Kingdom

40

Apple Catch;Bubble Pop;Avoid the Shark;Smart Shrimp(30 min)—MBE

5

2

30

42

⑤

Witte 2017 (1) [69]

Germany

28

Warm-up (10-15 min); Specific training (various stances, arm techniques during standing, simple attack and defense exercises, 40-45 min); Cool down (5 min)—MBE

20

2

60

13

⑥

Witte 2017 (2) [69]

Germany

23

Warm-up (10-15 min); Specific training (elements of gymnastics, running exercises, practices with a ball and other hand devices, strengthening exercises based on manuals, 40-45 min); Cool down (5 min)—MBE

20

2

60

13

⑥

Wu 2021 (1) [70]

United States

12

Begin Tai Chi; Part the horse’s mane; Brush knee and push; Cloud hands; Open and close; Part the grass; Single whip; Finish Tai Chi.—MBE

12

3

60

5

①, ④, ⑦

Wu 2021 (2) [70]

United States

13

Begin Tai Chi; Roll the ball; Kick with the heel; Repulse the monkey; Gather the earth’s qi; White crane spread wing; Fairy weaves the shuttle; Finish Tai Chi.—MBE

12

3

60

5

①, ④, ⑦