Table 1 Participant characteristics

Age, years

80.3 ± 5.4

79.6 ± 4.9

80.9 ± 5.8

0.447

Female, n

26 (72.2)

13 (72.2)

13 (72.2)

> 0.999

Education, years

13.1 ± 3.4

14.2 ± 3.2

12.1 ± 3.3

0.056

BMI, kg/m²

25.9 ± 3.7

24.9 ± 3.1

26.9 ± 4.1

0.112

Chronic disease, n

30 (83.3)

15 (83.3)

15 (83.3)

> 0.999

Fall history, n

13 (36.1)

6 (33.3)

7 (38.9)

0.732

Frailty phenotype, n

0.573

 Robust

17 (47.2)

10 (55.6)

7 (38.9)

 Pre-frail

16 (44.4)

7 (38.9)

9 (50.0)

 Frail

3 (8.3)

1 (5.6)

2 (11.1)

MMSE, pt

28.2 ± 1.5

28.2 ± 1.7

28.3 ± 1.3

0.823

5-item GDS, pt

0 [0–1]

1 [0–1]

0.5 [0–1]

0.522

EQ-5D VAS, pt

72.7 ± 17.2

68.6 ± 18.7

76.8 ± 14.9

0.154

Short FES-I, pt

9.5 [8–11]

9.5 [8–11]

9.5 [8–11]

0.823

Treadmill experience, n

18 (50)

9 (50)

9 (50)

> 0.999

TUG, s

12.2 ± 4.8

12.2 ± 5.9

12.2 ± 3.6

0.968

SPPB, pt

9.9 ± 2.5

9.6 ± 2.8

10.3 ± 2.2

0.364

Gait speed, m/s^a

0.84 ± 0.16

0.82 ± 0.20

0.86 ± 0.12

0.439

Daily step count

8435 [7742–8535]

8449 [7673–9168]

8406 [7962–8504]

0.752